風沙星辰小論壇

Prelim Questions
Postsecondary



Historical Development of Postsecondary institutions in relation to its conflicting and contradicting mission

In evaluating the history of community colleges and its conflicting missions, it is apparent that over the last one hundred years of the existence of postsecondary institutions, they have provided different functions in higher education. Cohen and Brawer (1996) provide a comprehensive overview of the historical development of postsecondary institutions as well as outline their conflicting missions. In addition Dougherty (1994) provide insight to the contradicting missions of community colleges.
The first and second Morrill Acts of 1862 and 1890 expanded the accessibility of higher education in general. By the government providing land grant to each state to support the agricultural and mechanical curriculum, the doors of more postsecondary institutions began to open to educate the masses. The second Morrill Act opened access to provide education for blacks. In 1892, William Rainey Harper the president of the University of Chicago initiated the idea of a junior college to separate those students who were not yet prepared for a four-year institution. From this idea began the first known junior college, in 1901, Joliet Junior College, which provided educational opportunities for immigrants.
The birth of the Joliet Junior College established the first known mission. The academic transfer mission is regarded as the eldest community college mission. The purpose of the transfer mission is to prepare students, who would not already be able to complete their studies at a four- year institution, to do so. A current issue today, is that many community colleges have not been able to negotiate clear articulation agreements between the community college and four-year institutions. So even though the purpose was to prepare students to transfer many students would be discouraged because of community college curriculums or programs would not allow for a seamless transition. This is also known as the cooling out function where students are relegated into community colleges without the hope of transferring into a four- year institution.
The early 1900’s gave rise to remedial education in order to provide education for immigrants. Remedial or developmental functions mission worked to assist those who were not ready for college. Today, remedial education may work with those students who have dropped out of high school for mediating circumstances. As a result, the community college can serve as a refuge for those students needing a second chance by assisting them in attaining a GED or even training for a given skill.
In 1904, the Wisconsin Idea promoted the community service purpose or mission. This idea stated that higher education should be used to benefit the society. This is important to note because today postsecondary institutions work to provide a service to its community. Community colleges today provide a wide range of educational, cultural, and recreational events for its community.
Then in the 1920’s and 1930’s the Great Depression fostered another mission. The vocational mission was developed to assist those who were out of work the acquired skills they may need. Postsecondary education was further supported under the Gentleman’s Readjustment Act (GI Bill) in 1944 after World War II, which provided funds to support veterans to attain higher education. This Act was a milestone in the higher education movement because it broke down the social and economic barriers of attaining higher education. It increased diversity in postsecondary education.
In 1945 the Harvard Red Book Report emphasized the need for a balance between general education and vocational education. With this in mind two years later the Truman Commission Report emphasized the need to make public community colleges learning centers. The report really expanded the community college idea. From this report gave rise to the continuing education and general education mission. Today, the general education curriculum is interrelated and effective for non-traditional students. For instance, by providing flexible hours and education (i.e. part-time students) many the programs are short lived.
The community college continued to grow beyond the continuing or general education mission. In 1947 the National Defense Act expanded money spent on education to encourage training in the math and sciences. It also promoted partnerships. The government also enacted the Vocational Act, which provided additional funds for vocational education in 1960. The 1960’s were significant because the Civil Rights movement allowed more accessibility to postsecondary institutions for women and minorities. It also was the birth of the Higher Education Authorization Act that provided funding for institutions and students. The 1980’s and 1990’s postsecondary mission went back to more of vocational mission. This was a change from the general education mission.
Now, community colleges have surpassed its hundred years of existence and it still faces balancing its conflicting mission. It tries being all things to all people, but cannot. Another obstacle is that it continues to support its diverse student populations. The competing educational missions of a community college spurs tension among its leadership and the constituents that are being served. The administrators and instructors role is diverse, multi-faceted and demand juggling an array of goals.

Does community colleges encourage equality?
According to Clark (1960) community colleges have a cooling out function. Brint and Karabel (1989) and Dougherty (1994) would concur. Community colleges according to these critics are merely relegating students away from an opportunity to attain a four-year degree.
Clark (1960) coined the term the “Cooling Out” function of the community colleges to segregate students into a junior college. By advising students to pursue an associates degree students are tracked into vocational programs. Students are told that they are over aspiring by going into four-year institutions. It makes sense to provide an open door for those students that may not be ready for four-year institutions, but may provide a warm up for those students who would not have gained access. The problem is that women and minorities are more likely to be advised or tracked into vocational programs. Cohen and Brawer (1996) also noted that once tracked in workforce development programs it is 11-19% less likely to attain a bachelor’s degree.
Brint and Karabel (1989) coined the term Diverted Dream which argues that students are not only “cooled out” but they are diverted into vocational programs. They argue this sort of tracking or tracking creates or maintains a clear class-based system. Higher education is a means to social mobility and without it people are in many instances stuck in their class strata or negatively impact their earning potential. Also, these authors argue that vocational education is not producing an educated citizenry. Revival of the transfer function is the best way to ensure democratization.
Dougherty (1994) would agree with Clark (1960) and Brint and Karabel (1989) by noting that students who are tracked into community colleges are given access to higher education, but are not successful in moving them toward the bachelor’s degree. In addition, students stay close to home and do not gain new experiences because to attend a community college is cheaper than a four-year institution. Also, the retention of students who are interested in transferring is not as high as those students receiving vocational training.
Public policy can ameliorate the some of these concerns. By improving the articulation and transfer agreements between two-year and four-year institutions will possibly provide more equal opportunity. Policy should ensure that credits will transfer, there is a seamless system, provide courses that general as well as vocational. Partnerships with high schools to bridge the skill gaps so students are academically prepared and do not need remedial education.

Has community colleges shifted from higher education
Community colleges experience mission shifts by trying to be all things to all people. The career oriented curriculum has assisted many non-traditional students such as older and commuter students. More students are taking classes versus completing programs. Clowes and Levine discuss in their article “Community, technical and junior college are they leaving higher education” how community colleges should stick to the core function of providing a career-oriented curriculum and allowing remedial education, community service, and the transfer function as a side bar to the core function.
Instead of looking at community colleges as drifting instead it has expanded. It has shifted to be accommodating to diverse population. It has embraced the Wisconsin Idea of 1904 to be of service to its community in order to make a better society. National Defense Act in 1958 spurred collaboration in education and the Civil Rights movement in the 1960’s increased diversity to meet the needs of students. It is not that community colleges are leaving higher education, but supporting non-traditional students.

How does higher education face elitism?
In 1892, Lange of Berkely, Jordan of Stanford, and William Rainey Harper f University of Chicago all advocated separating students from the masses of student pursuing a four-year degree. Then Clark (1960), Brint and Karabel (1989) and Dougherty (1994) argued that community colleges tracked students into vocational education programs that deterred their chances of attaining a bachelor’s degree.
Ignash (1992) discussed how community colleges are in the shadow of the four-year institutions. They are at the mercy of the four-year institutions who dictate in many instances transfer agreements, policy requirements and standards, which forces community colleges its relinquish control. Community colleges do not have the freedom to establish curriculum nor do they have the freedom to establish alternative courses because they must not fall out of line with the dictated course requirements established by the four-year institutions.
Faculty at the community colleges also feels the burden to abide by these rules and policies. Since there is so much emphasize on research and the production of knowledge, faculty at the community colleges do not feel as valued. The primary role of community college faculty is to teach, advice, and support students. These are roles that are not as highly valued. As a result, community college faculty inferior to faculty who is a researcher and who travel and shares their knowledge. This problem could be ameliorated if the standard in which faculty were rated or judged changed. Vaughen (1992) discuss how alternative ways to judge academic contributions by faculty by valuing book reviews or outside lectures.
The two examples of how elitism still continues in community colleges is evident in the fact that one must attain an associate’s degree before they can transfer and that they will have to receive a high school diploma or GED before pursuing a degree program.

What are the historical generations of postsecondary institutions? (since we are familiar with the time line

There are five generation noted in the historical development of community colleges. The first generation is known as the High School extension during the 1915-1930. It was a period when junior colleges struggled in establishing its identity. During this period, Koos wrote about the Junior College movement in 1925 and Eells established the Junior College Journal where he discussed the functions of the junior college.
The second generation is the junior college during the 1940 to 1950. It was this time that the government issued the GI Bill, Harvard Red Book Report and the Truman Commission Report. The third generation known as the community college era, which was 1950 to 1960. It was during this period that the National Defense Act in 1958 and Vocational Act of 1960 help to expand the community college model. During the 1960’s this period was identified as the Golden era because of the Civil Rights movement and Higher Education Act of 1965 that provided funds for higher education. The fourth generation is entitled the Comprehensive community college where reassessment of the function of community college was evaluated during the 1970’s and 1980’s. The last generation is known as the present. This period has reemphasized the importance of career-oriented education.

Describe O’Banion’s learning center

The main principles of the learning paradigm advocates that it creates a major change in the way a student learns. The learning paradigm works to engage students in the learning process and assumes students will take responsibility for their own choices. It offers an array of learning options and encourages collaborative learning. It promotes faculty becoming facilitators of learning who work to meet the needs of the students.
O’Banion advocates that institutions that reject the instructional paradigm and convert to the learning paradigm will achieve successful outcomes. For instance, faculty to work to provide a learning environment that promotes collaboration and faculty and students work together. Faculty are encouraged under the learning paradigm to champion alternative styles of teaching that uses technology and rejects the old lecture style. There is more emphasize ensuring the success of students by measuring their learning outcomes. These are some of the examples of the reasons the learning paradigm is ideal. However, two major concerns with this model is that faculty have to be on board and society is used to the instructional paradigm that only works to focus on programs and curriculum and not alternative ways to engage students and provoke greater learning outcomes.
(When giving these points provide examples)

Overview of students, faculty, governance, and finance of postsecondary institutions (already are aware of the historical and missions of community colleges)

The community college student is diverse and has a plethora of needs. Most students are referred to as non-traditional students who are older, women, or minority. These students are seeking specific training, skills, or certification to be marketable in the workplace. Some students come to community colleges to receive a GED or remedial education. While other students are interested in just taking evening classes such as pottery or poetry. Faculty serves multiple roles; they are teachers, counselors, mentors, and advisors. Many of them do not hold an advanced degree, but a master’s degree. (Cohen and Brower, 1996)
The governance structure is noted for being bureaucratic (hierarchical in structure), loosely coupled where a lot of units work in collaboration together, and in an organized anarchy where no on group has too much influence. The governance system maybe a state wide system like in Connecticut, University wide system with braches like in New York, or singe independent district like in Florida. The last type is multi-unit structure like in Texas. The financing of the community colleges is either negotiated, cost based or unit-rate formula (number of dollars allocated per unit measure).

Not going to write out, but be aware of the challenges and opportunities associated with changing demographics (don’t just think in terms of diversity, but age as well) and technology.

As we discussed in finance, postsecondary, and basic the major higher education trends are the same:
1) Demographic changes (diversity and non-traditional students)
2) Funding issues/current events (e.g. the economy)
3) Competition for resources
4) Technology